Business Communication

Communication Process

The Purpose of Communication.

Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other people and having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the people we are talking with. When we communicate we speak, listen, and observe.

The way we communicate is a learned style. As children we learn from watching our parents and other adults communicate. As an adult we can
learn to improve the way we communicate by observing others who communicate effectively, learning new skills, and practicing those skills.

Communication can best be summarized as the transmission of a message from a sender to a receiver in an understandable manner. The importance of effective communication is immeasurable in the world of business and in personal life. From a business perspective, effective communication is an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the difference between success and failure or profit and loss. It has become clear that effective business communication is critical to the successful operation of modern enterprise. Every business person needs to understand the fundamentals of effective communication.

Currently, companies in the United States and abroad are working toward the realization of total quality management. Effective communication is the most critical component of total quality management. The manner in which individuals perceive and talk to each other at work about different issues is a major determinant of the business success. It has proven been proven that poor communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and eventually leads to anger and a lack of trust among individuals within the organization.

The Elements of Communication.

The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is through the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession. Effective communication leads to understanding.

The communication process is made up of four key components. Those components include encoding, medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two other factors in the process, and those two factors are present in the form of the sender and the receiver. The communication process begins with the sender and ends with the receiver.

The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication. This source is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with the sender.

The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols can take on numerous forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into messages that others can understand.

When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit. This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the receivers knowledge and assumptions, along with what additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It is important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for the sender to improve encoding their message, is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver's point of view.

To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also called a medium). The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are either oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming more common as technology expands. Common channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters, and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the communication. For example, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels are more effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written channels are often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should be used because one supplements the other.

If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not reach the right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's understanding. The sender's decision to utilize either an oral or a written channel for communicating a message is influenced by several factors. The sender should ask him or herself different questions, so that they can select the appropriate channel. Is the message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or a permanent record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the message going to someone inside or outside the organization? What oral and written communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender has answered all of these questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.

After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the decoding stage of the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to assign some type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to interpret the symbols sent by the sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the receiver correctly interprets the sender's message.

The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of factors, which include the following: how much the individual or individuals know about the topic, their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture. It is similar to the sender's relationship with encoding.

Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile, or some other action. "Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.

Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood message. "Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background, different interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).

The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective communication. When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the sender's message will be understood by the receiver. Although the communication process seems simple, it in essence is not. Certain barriers present themselves throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that have a negative impact on the communication process. Some common barriers include the use of an inappropriate medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words that conflict with body language, and technical jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is anything that distorts a message by interfering with the communication process. Noise can take many forms, including a radio playing in the background, another person trying to enter your conversation, and any other distractions that prevent the receiver from paying attention.

Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the implementation of the communication process. All members within an organization will improve their communication skills if they follow the communication process, and stay away from the different barriers. It has been proven that individuals that understand the communication process will blossom into more effective communicators, and effective communicators have a greater opportunity for becoming a success.

Barriers To Communication.

There are several barriers to communication. These include:-

i)Physical noise
Physical noise occurs when the sender and receiver try to communicate in a situation that is noisy, For example, the bus stop. The noise produced by the passing buses create what is known as ‘physical noise’.

ii)Technical noise
Technical noise occurs when the sender and the receiver use a tool to communicate for example, a phone. When 2 people are communicating using the phone, and one person steps into an elevator, the signal will be lost and the communication will fail. The break down with the tool used to communicate is known as ‘technical noise’.

iii)Psychological noise
Psychological noise occurs when the receiver of the message is thinking of something and not concentrating on the message itself, for example, having class in a park. While this may sound like a nice and comfortable situation to be in the message may be lost if the receiver of the message is thinking about if the grass is wet or if there are any harmful bees around. As the receiver loses concentration on what is being transmitted by the sender, so we have ‘psychological noise’.

iv)Poor timing
Poor timing usually happens when the sender is not aware of the mood of the receiver when sending the message. For example, approaching your employer for a raise when he/she has just made an announcement that the company is almost bankrupt.

v)Perceptual bias
Perceptual bias occurs when the sender is not aware of the rules of first impression. For example, when you attend an interview there is an appropriate dress code. Failure to follow that dress code may result in you being prejudiced against. If you go for an interview for an accounting position dressed in jeans and a t-shirt, don’t be surprised if you don’t get the job.

vi)Lack of interest
Sometimes, there are some things that we are just not interested in. Of all the subjects that students learn to complete their degree, they cannot love all. There will be the ONE of TWO subject that we have to suffer to stay awake for. A lack of interest in what someone has to say will definitely lead to a breakdown in communication.

vii)Psychological bias
Ever heard of prejudices? Someone doesn’t like you because you are male/female, old/young, rich/poor. There are biases. A bias is something that the sender cannot fix. There is no solution to this problem. Just be prepared.

viii)Information overload
Information overload occurs when you try to absorb too much information over a short period of time. If you try to study continuously for hours without a break, or introduce too many new concepts to your learning in one period of time, your mind will become confused and this can lead to a break down in communication.


Effective Communication.

There are several factors that ensure effective communication. These include:-
i) Rumour
ii) Congeniality
iii) Time awareness
iv) Perceptual awareness
v) Location

What is Report Writing?

The purpose of a report is to inform someone about a
particular subject. Reports are made up of facts and
arguments on a specific subject. Reports allow information to be
presented in an ordered way. You can write reports for business,
psychology, health and safety.

Short Formal Report

A Short Formal Report is for internal use in companies.
The structure of a Short Formal Report is as follows:
Title Page
- Terms of reference
Procedure
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
Appendices

Title Page

A title page is the front page of the report. The title page should include the author’s
name and the date.

Contents Page

The contents page is a list of the sections in the report with the related page
numbers.


Introduction

The introduction is where you give the reader of the task set and
what you intend to cover.
The introduction is a good time to include the statement of aims
and objectives; this is when you say what you are planning to do and
how you are going to do it.

The Terms of Reference

This is an introductory part of the report and should clearly say:
Who the report is for e.g. OCR Certificate in Administration Group
What the report is about e.g. Following office procedures
When the report needs to being presented by e.g. to be presented to
- Certificate in Administration Group 20 January…

Procedure

This is where you explain how the information was gathered. You also need to say
exactly where you got your information from, and how you got the information. This is
where you would also include your methodology if relevant.

Findings

This section of the report should contain the information that you
found out as a result of your procedure. You will need to include
the facts and figures that have been collected during your report.
You can use tables, graphs and charts, if you do, you must
remember to describe them e.g. Chart 8 or Appendix 3 shows that
28% of offices do not meet safety requirements.


Conclusions

The conclusion is made up of the main findings. This is where you show what you
think of the information you have found. Make sure that you
clearly show how you came to your conclusions, and that they
are based on your findings. Everything in this section is based
on the findings and you should not introduce new points at this
time.

Recommendations

This is where you must say how the problem can be solved. This must be based on the
findings of the report. You can have short term and long-term recommendations; you
need to be aware of the implication of your recommendations (financial etc).

Things to remember when writing your report:
Language and Style

Your writing must be clear and precise in meaning.
The style of writing should be factual and objective.
The language must be formal. Do not use slang.
Do not use ‘I’, ‘you’ or ‘me’ in a formal report. Use third person language such
as- ‘The personnel committee requested a report on…’


Layout/ Headings

The main parts of your report should have headings.
Important points inside these main areas should carry sub-headings.
If you want to draw attention to a specific word or section, underline that
word or heading.
Numbers can be used to help list points of importance in order.
You can use letters to distinguish between different parts of the report


Subject
To:
From :
Date :

1. Introduction

2. Procedure

3. Findings

4. Conclusion

5. Recommendation


MEMORANDUM

A memorandum is written using a specific format, usually a format accepted by the office in which the memorandum is to be used.

SAMPLE MEMORANDUM

MEMORANDUM

TO: The person receiving the memorandum

FROM: The person writing the memorandum

DATE: Usually a formal manner of writing the date, for example 20 April 2004

SUBJECT: A short title descriptive of the topic in discussion in the memorandum
________________________________________
Introduction: explaining why the memorandum has been written and what topic the memorandum will discuss.

Body: discussing the topic in detail--explaining what exactly and itemizing when possible.

Conclusion: explaining what will or should happen next, when the follow-up will occur and why the date is important.

Regardless of what a memorandum is about, each memo should be about a single idea, subject, or report. This is the accepted format of a memo so that when a memo is actioned the single sheet of paper, or in the electronic office a single email can be filed in the most appropriate location, and the action can be recorded on the memo in some way to indicate completion of that item. In addition, some offices restrict the size of a memo to just one page, although this is difficult to handle in an electronic office; in those settings memos are often restricted to 500 words or less.



[edit] Body
Organization features of a memorandum tend to vary according to the context. For example, one of the ways to organize a legal memo would feature an organization as follows:
• Heading
• A summary of relevant facts
• Succinct identification of issues
• A discussion of relevance and application
• A conclusion that is responsive to the issues.
On the other hand, [1] Gerson and Gerson, Technical Writing: Process and Product, 5e, give some general advice in structuring memoranda. For Dobel et. al., there are three important steps every memo must display for good organization and embedding a strong argument: first, the subject must be introduced and any terms that may not be clear should be defined, second, the argument needs to be laid out step-by-step so that the reasoning can be followed, and third, connect the ideas and bring the text to a conclusion.
[edit] Language
There are a number of writers in educational settings who give law students, those entering the armed forces, students of journalism, advice on the type of language to be used in memoranda. In summary, the language in memoranda should be:

• Directed to your audience - memos are usually directed at decision makers and usually you write for an individual or a group to help them make a decision. To influence decision makers you need to give considerable thought to who they are and what they understand and what powers they have to be able to take action relating to your memo.

• Simple and direct - complex sentence structure and organization is a sure sign of confusion or a hidden agenda. A well-written memo will state your case in simple steps; even if you have a very complex argument, or the subject is highly technical and you are writing for managers, you need to use the simplest words and state your case in simple sentences.

• Word choice - often the simpler and more common words are going to get good action. Quasi-technical terms need to be eliminated: so instead of using "facilitate" you could use "help" or "assist", and "indicate" could be simpler with "say" or "show".

• Clearly assign action and responsibility — bureaucrats are notorious for obscuring responsibility by using words like the imperial "we" or passive voice: e.g. "We have always argued that rapid transit is the best long-run solution to urban transportation problems, given finite energy resource. In the short run, though, we are faced with the immediate problem of how to accommodate the city to the automobile." Notice how the first "we" communicates what the writer thinks, and the second "we" to implicate the reader in a point of view.
Most decision makers, who are the audience for memos, prefer clarity, conciseness and accuracy. Even with the more rushed world in which we live, memos (in the form of emails) do not succeed in engaging action, simply because the email was written with little thought, poor direction to your reading audience and little to no proof reading.


BUSINESS LETTER.

A business letter is a letter written in formal language (English), usually used when writing from one business organization to another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned;[1] however, there is a general consensus on style,[2] for example, Business letters usually follow a left-blocked format, other points of general style are outlined below.

Parts of a Business Letter

Business Letters usually contain the following information (in this order):
• Letterhead or sender's address
• Date
• Inside address
• Salutation or Greeting
• Letter body
• Complimentary closing
• Signature, printed name, and position of sender

In some situations, a business letter may also include the following optional information:
• Reference (RE:)
• Carbon Copy Recipients (CC:)
• Enclosures (ENC:)
• Reference Initials (of the typist)

Dates

The date usually goes between your address and the recipients address. In formal business writing, it is best to completely write out the date to avoid confusion. For example, the writer should write October 8, 2002, instead of 10/8/02. One reason for writing out the date is date-formats; in the US, 10/8/02 is October 8, 2002, but most of the world would read this as 10th August 2002.

Body

The body of your letter should be written clearly and concisely. It includes as many paragraphs as are necessary to communicate the information. Paragraphs are generally short, no more than 4 or 5 lines.

If additional documents are being enclosed with a business letter they should be mentioned in the body of the letter.

Closing

A closing is included after the last paragraph of a business letter. Examples of closings in business letters include "Cordially (yours)", "Respectfully (yours)", "(With) best regards" and "(With) kindest regards". The closing that is used will depend on the contents and formality of the letter, the writer's familiarity with the recipient, and the recipient's level of authority. "Yours truly" and "Very truly yours" are often considered more affectionate and omitted from modern Business Letter style guides[3], but you will find them listed in older style manuals[4], and are often taught to non-native writers as a catch-all phrase[citation needed], for use when the writer is uncertain how to close the letter. Still, most attorneys close legal correspondence with "Very truly yours."

In UK English, a closing is followed by a comma ("Yours sincerely,") only if the salutation included a comma. If a comma is omitted from the salutation, the letter should be considered written in 'open punctuation', and the comma should therefore be omitted from the closing also ("Yours sincerely").

In the UK, the use of the closing "Yours sincerely," is generally reserved for a recipient whose name is known, substituting "Yours faithfully," where it is not known.

Signature

The sender's signature is included after the closing. The sender's name and title should be typed under the signature. The sender's name should come before their title.

PRESENTATION

The material of your presentation should be concise, to the point and tell an interesting story. In addition to the obvious things like content and visual aids, the following are just as important as the audience will be subconsciously taking them in:

• Your voice - how you say it is as important as what you say

• Body language - a subject in its own right and something about which much has been written and said. In essence, your body movements express what your attitudes and thoughts really are. You might like to check out this web page

• Appearance - first impressions influence the audience's attitudes to you. Dress appropriately for the occasion.

As with most personal skills oral communication cannot be taught. Instructors can only point the way. So as always, practice is essential, both to improve your skills generally and also to make the best of each individual presentation you make.
Preparation
Prepare the structure of the talk carefully and logically, just as you would for a written report. What are:

• the objectives of the talk?
• the main points you want to make?

Make a list of these two things as your starting point
Write out the presentation in rough, just like a first draft of a written report. Review the draft. You will find things that are irrelevant or superfluous - delete them. Check the story is consistent and flows smoothly. If there are things you cannot easily express, possibly because of doubt about your understanding, it is better to leave them unsaid.

Never read from a script. It is also unwise to have the talk written out in detail as a prompt sheet - the chances are you will not locate the thing you want to say amongst all the other text. You should know most of what you want to say - if you don't then you should not be giving the talk! So prepare cue cards which have key words and phrases (and possibly sketches) on them. Postcards are ideal for this. Don't forget to number the cards in case you drop them.

Remember to mark on your cards the visual aids that go with them so that the right OHP or slide is shown at the right time
Rehearse your presentation - to yourself at first and then in front of some colleagues. The initial rehearsal should consider how the words and the sequence of visual aids go together. How will you make effective use of your visual aids?

Making the presentation

Greet the audience (for example, 'Good morning, ladies and gentlemen'), and tell them who you are. Good presentations then follow this formula:

• tell the audience what you are going to tell them,
• then tell them,
• at the end tell them what you have told them.

Keep to the time allowed. If you can, keep it short. It's better to under-run than over-run. As a rule of thumb, allow 2 minutes for each general overhead transparency or Powerpoint slide you use, but longer for any that you want to use for developing specific points. 35mm slides are generally used more sparingly and stay on the screen longer. However, the audience will get bored with something on the screen for more than 5 minutes, especially if you are not actively talking about it. So switch the display off, or replace the slide with some form of 'wallpaper' such as a company logo.

Stick to the plan for the presentation, don't be tempted to digress - you will eat up time and could end up in a dead-end with no escape!
Unless explicitly told not to, leave time for discussion - 5 minutes is sufficient to allow clarification of points. The session chairman may extend this if the questioning becomes interesting.

At the end of your presentation ask if there are any questions - avoid being terse when you do this as the audience may find it intimidating (ie it may come across as any questions? - if there are, it shows you were not paying attention). If questions are slow in coming, you can start things off by asking a question of the audience - so have one prepared.

Delivery

Speak clearly. Don't shout or whisper - judge the acoustics of the room.
Don't rush, or talk deliberately slowly. Be natural - although not conversational.
Deliberately pause at key points - this has the effect of emphasising the importance of a particular point you are making.
Avoid jokes - always disastrous unless you are a natural expert
To make the presentation interesting, change your delivery, but not to obviously, eg:
• speed
• pitch of voice

Use your hands to emphasise points but don't indulge in to much hand waving. People can, over time, develop irritating habits. Ask colleagues occasionally what they think of your style.
Look at the audience as much as possible, but don't fix on an individual - it can be intimidating. Pitch your presentation towards the back of the audience, especially in larger rooms.
Don't face the display screen behind you and talk to it. Other annoying habits include:

• Standing in a position where you obscure the screen. In fact, positively check for anyone in the audience who may be disadvantaged and try to accommodate them.

• Muttering over a transparency on the OHP projector plate an not realising that you are blocking the projection of the image. It is preferable to point to the screen than the foil on the OHP (apart from the fact that you will probably dazzle yourself with the brightness of the projector)
Avoid moving about too much. Pacing up and down can unnerve the audience, although some animation is desirable.
Keep an eye on the audience's body language. Know when to stop and also when to cut out a piece of the presentation.

Finally ...,
Enjoy yourself. The audience will be on your side and want to hear what you have to say

Using Visual Aids

The key to a strong presentation isn't the equipment you use. You should be able to do your presentation on a blank stage, with no props, and have it work on its own. The whole idea of visual aids is to enhance your presentation, not to be the purpose of it.
The absolutely worst presenters are those who use the equipment as a crutch. For example, those who stand up before a group and just read slides during a presentation.
It is very important that you follow the rules of using visual aids in the next pages to have a successful presentation.

OVERHEAD PROJECTORS

The overhead projector is the most used and abused of all audio-visual equipment. Everyone in business has one and usually uses it. They are a common fixture in most conference rooms. Overhead projectors can greatly enhance your presentation if they are used right. They are very easy to use and can accommodate large or small audiences.
Tips on using this vital piece of equipment:

Before Presentations:

1. Make sure the plug reaches the socket. It is a good idea to carry an extension cord
2. Put the projector at a height that is comfortable for you.
3. Make sure the lens is dust free.
4. Put the projector on a vibration free base.
5. Arrange the electric cord so no one will trip over it.
6. Focus and center the picture on the screen beforehand.
7. Number your transparencies in accordance with your facilitator's guide.
8. Never assume projectors will work. Have a backup strategy ready.

During Presentations:

1. Keep the screen above the heads of the participants.
2. Keep the screen in full view of participants.
3. Make sure you are not blocking anyone's view when presenting.
4. Darken the room appropriately by blocking out sunshine and dimming nearby lights.
5. Turn the screen off between slides if you are going to talk for more than two minutes.
6. No one should be farther from the screen than six times the width of the image.
7. Talk to the audience, not to the screen.
8. Use a pointer to emphasize points, don't use it as a crutch and don't wave it wildly.

TIPS ON USING FLIP CHARTS AND POSTERS:

Before Presentations:
1. Check the height of the easel.
2. Make sure you have plenty of paper.
During Presentations:
1. Title each page with a short topic or heading.
2. Print the large block letters 1 1/4 inches high, larger if the room is deeper than 30ft.
3. Printing should be neat and legible.
4. Use different colors for page headings and primary points.
5. The color red should be used only for emphasis.
6. Do not use pastel colors. Black, blue, dark green and brown are acceptable.
7. Put marker down when you are not using it.
8. Don't talk to the board while writing on it.
9. Do not write more than ten lines on a page.
10. Do not fill the page to the bottom. People in the back will be unable to see.
11. Respond to and note input from participants.
12. Post important papers on the wall with masking tape or pins.
13. Do not write on the papers after posting on the wall. The pen may bleed.
14. Highlight key points.
15. Respond to and highlight input from participants.
16. Allow time for reading, retention and note taking.
17. Use the 'matador tear', a sharp tug at the corner, not straight down.
Other suggestions:
1. For complex pages, prepare ahead in light pencil and then trace with a marker.
2. If you travel with prepared pages, roll them up and carry them in a mailing tube.
3. Sometimes you might use two easels, one already prepared and one for extemporaneous use.

VIDEOTAPES

Before Presentations:
1. Be sure the videotape is rewound and at the starting point. Do this right after you show the film.

2. Check to make sure the playback machine and the monitor are playing properly. Check this before the session so you may replace the machine if it is not working properly.

3. Check audio level and contrast.

4. Lights should be dimmed but not turned off.
During Presentation:

1. Explain what the purpose of the tape is before playing it.
2. Show interest in the tape and watch it enthusiastically.
3. Summarize the main points after you have shown the tape.


AUDIO TAPES

Before Presentation:
1. Be sure the tape is rewound and at its starting point.
2. Adjust the volume so all participants can hear.
3. Use a high quality recorder to prevent distortion.
4. If the recorder is portable, position it at table level of the participants.
5. Explain the purpose of the tape and identify the speaker before playing.
6. Always carry a backup tape!

BOOKS AND HANDOUTS

Books:
1. If you are using training manuals, make sure each student has one.
2. Make sure you have a few extra books with you in case extra students arrive.
3. Make sure you frequently reference page numbers with your audience so they know where you are in the book.
Handouts:
1. For visual variety provide handouts on yellow light blue paper.
2. Distribute the handouts just prior to discussing the topics.
3. Have extra handouts for unexpected participants.

MICROPHONE

Before Presentation:
1. If you are going to be moving around during your presentation make sure that a clip on (Lavalier) microphone is available.
2. The Lavalier should be attached to a jacket, lapel, collar, neckline or tie above the mid chest level, but not against the larynx or your voice will become muffled.
During Presentation:
1. Speak clearly into the microphone.
2. Keep proper distance from the microphone. When using a standard podium microphone talk about six inches from the microphone.
3. Repeat questions from the audience into the microphone. This helps everyone hear the question that was asked.

Interviews – The before, during and after.
BEFORE
There are things that you should you bring with you to the interview and things that you need to leave at home:
What to Bring to an Interview
• Portfolio or pad holder with a copy of your resume and a list of references on quality paper
• Work Samples (if relevant)
• Notepad, Pen
• Breath mint (before you enter the building)
• Women: extra pair of pantyhose (keep in your briefcase or car)

What Not to Bring to an Interview
• Cell phone
• iPod
• Gum
• Cigarettes
• Candy
• Soda or coffee
• Scuffed shoes, messy and/or not-so-clean clothes
While You Wait
The way you sit in the lobby, the way you greet the receptionist and the interviewer, and the way you wait, will all have an impact on whether you are going to be considered for the job. Be friendly and pleasant, but, not overbearing. If you need to wait, sit quietly (no phone calls) and patiently. Shake hands with the interviewer. Your handshake should be firm - not sticky or wimpy. To avoid sweaty palms, visit the rest room, wash your hands, then run them under cool water prior to the interview. Keep your palms open rather than clenched in a fist and keep a tissue you in your pocket to (surreptitiously) wipe them.

How to Dress for an Interview

An article in U.S.A. Today spoke about candidates for jobs wearing jeans, purple sweat suits, and spike heels or sneakers. Other applicants weren't afraid to show pierced body parts and spiked hair. Still others chewed gum or showed up in rumpled clothes or with their pants falling down. One recruiter even told a candidate with his trousers down below his hips, to "Pull your pants up." According to the article, the outlandish dress costs some candidates the job.
Dress Your Best When Interviewing
Does it really make a difference how you dress and act? In many cases, it does. I'll never forget the gentleman I interviewed for an accounting position. He had been out of work for a few months and wanted to show me why. He took off his jacket, unbuttoned his shirt and started to pull down his pants (this is a true story) to show me the scar from a boat propeller that had injured him.
Women's Interview Attire
• Solid color, conservative suit
• Coordinated blouse
• Moderate shoes
• Limited jewelry
• Neat, professional hairstyle
• Tan or light hosiery
• Sparse make-up & perfume
• Manicured nails
• Portfolio or briefcase
Men's Interview Attire
• Solid color, conservative suit
• White long sleeve shirt
• Conservative tie
• Dark socks, professional shoes
• Very limited jewelry
• Neat, professional hairstyle
• Go easy on the aftershave
• Neatly trimmed nails
• Portfolio or briefcase

Learn and Practice

Knowing as much as possible about the company can make your interview more interactive and could be just what you need to get ahead in a competitive job market. Next, practice answering typical interview questions so you'll be prepared and comfortable during the actual interview. Plan on what you are going to wear ahead of time. Also, make sure you know where you're going and give yourself plenty of time so you can arrive ahead of schedule.


Employer Research

Gathering background information on employers is crucial element for successful interview preparation. Review prospective employers web sites, especially the About This Company section and don't be afraid to request details on the position you are interviewing.
Prepare For the Interview
It is very important to be on time for the interview. On time means ten to fifteen minutes early. If need be, take some time to drive to the office ahead of time so you know exactly where you are going. Know the interviewer's name and use it during the interview. If your not sure of the name, call and ask prior to the interview. Remember to bring an extra copy of your resume and a list of references.

DURING.

How to Use Nonverbal Communication to Impress
When interviewing for employment you could be thinking that if you are the candidate with the best answers to interview questions, you'll get the job. In fact, that isn't typically the case.
CollegeJournal reports that, according to some studies, "Body language comprises 55% of the force of any response, whereas the verbal content only provides 7%, and paralanguage, or the intonation -- pauses and sighs given when answering -- represents 38% of the emphasis."
As you can see, nonverbal communication is as important, or even more important than, verbal communication. The evaluation of your nonverbal communication will start as soon as you walk into the company's lobby and continue until the interview is finished.

Nonverbal Communication Matters

If you come to an interview reeking of cigarette smoke or chewing gum, you will already have one strike against you. Too much perfume or not enough deodorant won't help either. Not being dressed appropriately or having scuffed shoes will give you a second strike. Talking on your cell phone or listening to an IPod while waiting to be called for the interview may be your final strike.
What's important, when interviewing, is to appear professional and attentive throughout the interview process. Before you leave for the interview, make sure you are dressed professionally, neatly groomed, your shoes are polished, and you haven't overdone (none is better than too much) the perfume or aftershave. There's more than one hiring manager who won't hire someone they can smell (good or bad) before they meet them face-to-face.

Your verbal communication is important too. Remember your manners and and thank the interviewer for taking the time to meet with you. Don't use slang. Speak clearly and definitely.
What's most important, is to remember that the image the interviewer has of you when he first meets you is the one that is going to last. If you're slouchy, sloppy or messy it won't matter how well you answer the interview questions. You are not going to get the job. When practicing for an interview, work on your nonverbal communications as well as your other interviewing skills. It could be what clinches the job offer for you.

Bad Body Language Can Spoil an Interview
By EUGENE RAUDSEPP
Before a job interview, do you peruse magazines or review prepared notes? When the meeting begins, do you wait to be told where to sit or choose your own chair? And do you give passionately expressive or carefully controlled responses?
In each of these instances, your body language speaks volumes about how you'd perform at a company. In fact, some experts say nonverbal cues are more important than verbal ones. According to these studies, body language comprises 55% of the force of any response, whereas the verbal content only provides 7%, and paralanguage, or the intonation -- pauses and sighs given when answering -- represents 38% of the emphasis.

Jo-Ann Vega, president of JV Career and Human Resources Consulting Services in Nyack, N.Y., says body language is so important that it frequently torpedoes what we say.
"Our nonverbal messages often contradict what we say in words," says Ms. Vega. "When we send mixed messages or our verbal messages don't jibe with our body statements, our credibility can crumble because most smart interviewers believe the nonverbal."
Laid-off managers are a case in point. They're often so traumatized by their terminations that they appear downcast, even when discussing their strengths, says Ms. Vega. Difficult questions can throw them off balance, and their anxiety may cause them to fidget or become overly rigid, she says.

Since nonverbal communication is more eloquent, honest and accurate than verbal communication, such actions reveal your inner confidence. While words can deceive -- many people don't mean what they say or say what they mean -- body language is subconscious. Since it's more spontaneous and less controlled, it shows our true feelings and attitudes.
Still, most people discount the importance of nonverbal communication because their education and training placed more emphasis on spoken words. To become more adept at interpreting and using body language, heighten your awareness of nonverbal signals and learn to trust your gut instinct. Then, when interviewing, use the following tips to accentuate body language that stresses professionalism and performance.

The First Moments
Realize that you're being judged as soon as you arrive at the company. Set the right tone by being early, then use the extra time to compose yourself. When waiting for interviewers, don't open your briefcase to review notes you've prepared. Instead, glance through available magazines or literature in the waiting area.
This creates the impression that you're relaxed before stressful events, and helps you project confidence during the critical early moments of the interview.
If a receptionist or secretary indicates that the interviewer is ready to see you, enter his office as though you belonged. Knocking on the door, or opening it and peeking in, shows hesitation, which may be interpreted as a lack of confidence.
Greet your interviewer with a firm, sincere handshake. More than a few candidates have betrayed their nervousness by extending limp, clammy palms, and shaking hands weakly.
Don't start talking immediately, fumble with your briefcase or dive into a chair. If you aren't invited to sit, choose a chair across from or aside the interviewer's desk. Avoid soft lounge chairs or couches, which can prevent you from rising easily. And don't ask if and where you should sit.

If your interviewer receives a phone call during the meeting, select and review material from your briefcase to give him a sense of privacy. Don't show annoyance about the interruption or offer to leave the office. Many interviewers purposely take calls to determine if you'll react adversely to office disruptions.

How Close Can You Get?

Like anyone else, interviewers become uncomfortable if their personal space, or preferred distance from others, is invaded. Extraverted interviewers prefer a "social zone" of between 18 and 48 inches from their bodies, while introverts need more space.
Try to gauge interviewers' preferred distance by their seating arrangements. Move closer only if they seem skeptical about what you're saying. Other attempts to seem friendly by moving closer are likely to be threatening. For instance, some interviewers deliberately interrogate applicants by sitting or standing closer than they prefer.
When emphasizing key points, project sincerity and confidence by leaning forward, maintaining eye contact and using expressive gestures. Leaning back and looking down may be interpreted as a lack of confidence.

How Do You Speak?

How you say something often is more meaningful than what you say. Use a natural tone and don't deviate from your normal speaking rate, volume, rhythm, pitch, breathiness or resonance. Secure applicants have relaxed, warm and well-modulated voices that match their feelings, allowing them to appropriately express excitement, enthusiasm and interest during conversations.
Conversely, insecure candidates can't control their voice pitch and volume. They have weak, soft, hesitant or tremulous voices, and clear their throats, use "uhs" and "ums" or other nervous mannerisms excessively. Others mask their insecurity by speaking in complex, involved sentences.

Maintain Eye Contact

Candidates with secure self-esteem alter their facial expressions to match their message, rather than perpetually wearing the same one. They smile when saying something friendly, and maintain good eye contact, which signifies openness and honesty.
Less-assured candidates don't maintain eye contact, act shy or ashamed or smile at inappropriate times. They may appear downcast or pleading, or drop their eyes and heads, giving them an untrustworthy appearance.

Be cognizant of interviewers' expressions as well. If they don't maintain eye contact, it may mean they're anxious, irritated, disinterested or that they want the conversation to end. An interviewer who looks up may be uncomfortable, trying to remember something or doesn't believe your answer.

Don't overdo eye contact with interviewers, however. A gaze that lasts longer than seven to 10 seconds can cause discomfort or anxiety. Also, don't stare at interviewers during long silences, since it only increases the tension.

Posture and Gestures

Even if you're motionless, your posture communicates a message. Managers who put their feet up on desks and their hands behind their heads are saying that they feel confident, dominant or superior; a soldier standing at attention is showing deference to authority; and a subordinate who stands rigidly with hands on hips signals defiance or dislike.
Confident applicants have relaxed, balanced postures. They hold their bodies upright, walk freely with their arms swinging and take determined strides. Less-assured candidates, on the other hand, have rigid or stooped postures, drag or shuffle their feet when walking and take short, choppy strides.

Strive for posture that's as free and natural as your speaking style, but don't be too controlled or rehearsed, says Ms. Vega, who advises applicants to "let some of the passion out." When your movements are in sync with your words, you'll seem confident, expressive and controlled.

Reading Interviewers

Hiring managers also use gestures to convey specific messages. Nodding signifies approval and encourages applicants to continue talking, while leaning forward shows they're interested. Folded arms, crossed legs, picking imaginary lint from clothing or running their fingers along their noses are signs that an interviewer disagrees with you. Thumb twiddling, finger drumming and other fidgeting mannerisms mean the interviewer isn't paying attention.

Guard against using similar gestures or betraying your nervousness by clenching or wringing your hands. Other actions that convey stress include holding your legs or arms tensely, perching on the edge of a chair or playing with a watch or ring.

One caveat: Don't imagine a hidden meaning in every gesture. For example, if an interviewer rubs her nose while you're speaking, she may just have an itchy nose. Try to gauge the situation when seeking the meaning to a mannerism. Most experts look for clues in groups of gestures, not random ones.

Nevertheless, communicating the right nonverbal signals can help you convey an enthusiastic, positive and confident attitude during job interviews. And learning to read interviewers' cues can improve your prospects as well.

Writing Thank You Letters

Writing a thank you letter, or thank you email, after an employment interview is a must. In fact, some employers think less of those interviewees who fail to follow-up promptly. Plan to send out your thank you letters as soon as possible (preferably within twenty-four hours) after your interview.

Customize Your Thank You Letters

Like any piece of writing, it is best to keep your audience in mind. Address their issues and concerns. In general, typed (paper or email) thank you letters are recommended. Consider the "personality" of the organization and the rapport you felt during your interviews. If your interview was a fairly informal process and/or you achieved an immediate rapport with your interviewer, a handwritten note may be fine. When you're not sure what to write, review thank you letter samples to get ideas.

In addition to thanking the person you talked with, the thank you letter reinforces the fact that you want the job. Note: Even if you do not want the job, write a thank you letter respectfully withdrawing your application, because you never know what the future holds so why burn your bridges?

View Your Thank You Letters as Sales Letters

You may also view your thank you letters as follow-up "sales" letters. In other words, you can restate why you want the job, what your qualifications are, how you might make significant contributions, and so on. This thank you letter is also the perfect opportunity to discuss anything of importance that your interviewer neglected to ask or that you neglected to answer as thoroughly, or as well, as you would have liked.

Group Thank You Letters

What if you spent an entire day being interviewed (and taken to lunch) with several people? Are individual thank you notes appropriate or should you write a "group" letter? Choose your approach based on what you think will be most in keeping with the "personality" of the organization. Also, consider whether the interviews had very much in common with one another. If there was a great deal of similarity (i.e., shared concerns mutually voiced by your interviewers), perhaps a "group" letter will suffice. My preference though, would be to take the extra time and send an individual thank you letter to everyone you met with.

When You're Not Sure What to Write

Time takes precedence - get a simple, appreciative thank you note in the mail or send a thank you by email without delay; save your creative efforts for another time. If you're not sure what to write, review a few sample thank you letters or personalize our thank you letter template.
Remember to Proofread

Check spelling, grammar, typos, etc. If in doubt about the correct names, spellings or titles of your interviewers, call the office to double-check. Your efforts will be worth it!

Writing Curriculum Vitae

When to Use a Curriculum Vitae
Job seekers should use a curriculum vitae, commonly referred to as CV when applying for jobs. The CV is to be attached to the application letter. When asking for a job in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, or Asia, expect to submit a CV. Keep in mind that overseas employers often expect to read the type of personal information on a curriculum vitae such as date of birth, nationality and place of birth.
A curriculum vitae should include your name, contact information, education, skills and experience. In addition to the basics, a CV includes research and teaching experience, publications, grants and fellowships, professional associations and licenses, awards and other information relevant to the position you are applying for. Start by making a list of all your background information, then organize it into categories. Make sure you include dates on all the publications you include.

Curriculum Vitae Format

Your Contact Information

Name
Address
Telephone
Cell Phone
Email

Personal Information

Date of Birth
Place of Birth
Citizenship
Visa Status
Gender

Optional Personal Information

Marital Status
Spouse's Name
Children

Employment History

List in chronological order, include position details and dates
Work History
Academic Positions
Research and Training

Education

Include dates, majors, and details of degrees, training and certification
High School
University
Graduate School
Post-Doctoral Training

Professional Qualifications

Certifications and Accreditations
Computer Skills

Awards

Publications

Books

Professional Memberships

Interests



Cover Letter Guide

An individually typed cover letter typically accompanies each CV you send out.
A cover letter should complement, not duplicate your CV. Its purpose is to interpret the data-oriented, factual resume and add a personal touch. A cover letter is often your earliest written contact with a potential employer, creating a critical first impression.

The End Result

By the time you're finished, you will have a resume and cover letter(s) which will be polished, professional, and ready to send to prospective employers.
Cover Letter Content

Your cover letter should address three general issues:
• First Paragraph - Why you are writing
• Middle Paragraphs - What you have to offer
• Concluding Paragraph - How you will follow-up

Why You Are Writing

In some cases, you may have been referred to a potential employer by a business acquaintance, a professor or friend. Be sure to mention this mutual contact, by name, up front since it is likely to encourage your reader to keep reading!

• Jane Smith suggested that I write you concerning a position as a management trainee at your bank.

If you are writing in response to a job posting indicate where you learned of the position and the title of the position. More importantly, express your enthusiasm and the likely match between your credentials and the position’s qualifications.

• Please accept my application for the Legal Assistant position you posted on Monster. I am confident that my background and skills will prove to be an effective match for your needs. I am anxious to speak with you about the position and our respective goals.
If you are writing a prospecting letter - a letter in which you inquire about possible job openings - state your specific job objective. Since this type of letter is unsolicited, it is even more important to capture the reader’s attention.

• I recently read in ABC Trade Publication that your organization was awarded the 123 Federal Grant for environmental field studies. Since I will be graduating from XYZ University in May, I am anxious to continue my own geological field research full-time. I would like to discuss the work I have done and how it complements your projects.

What You Have To Offer

In responding to an advertisement, refer specifically to the qualifications listed and illustrate how your particular abilities and experiences relate to the position for which you are applying. In a prospecting letter express your potential to fulfill the employer's needs rather than focus on what the employer can offer you. You can do this by giving evidence that you have researched the organization thoroughly and that you possess skills used within that organization.

• I am especially interested in working at your school because my student teaching experience in designing and executing a career awareness program fits very appropriately into the pilot career program you instituted last year. Communicate interest, motivation, strengths, and intelligence.

• Evidence of my leadership and organizational skills can be seen in my experiences as Branch Manager, Communications Assistant, and Head Resident of my residence hal. Emphasize your achievements and problem-solving skills.

• As editor-in-chief of the ABC newspaper, I introduced a more attractive and readable format, developed several new columns to broaden our scope, and improved the quality of writing.
Show how your education and work skills are transferable, and thus relevant, to the position for which you are applying.

• Your posting indicates that you seek candidates with business degrees and sales experience. My educational background in business and psychology, combined with my fund-raising experience with XXX Development Office are excellent preparation for your Marketing Representative position.

When writing to request an informational meeting, write about your interests, skills or experiences as they relate to the person, organization or field.

How You Will Follow Up

Bid directly for the job interview or informational interview and indicate that you will follow-up with a telephone call to set up an appointment at a mutually convenient time. Be sure to make the call within the time frame indicated.
In some instances, an employer may explicitly prohibit phone calls or you may be responding to a "blind want-ad" which precludes you from this follow-up. Unless this is the case, make your best effort to reach the organization. At the very least, you should confirm that your materials were received and that your application is complete.
If you are applying from outside the employer’s geographic area you may want to indicate if you’ll be in town during a certain time frame (this makes it easier for the employer to agree to meet with you).

References

In conclusion, you may indicate that your references are available on request. Also, if you have a portfolio or writing samples to support your qualifications, state their availability.
Cover Letter Format
The following cover letter format lists the information you need to include in the cover letter you submit with your resume. Use this cover letter format as a guideline to create customized cover letters to send to employers.

Cover Letter Format

Your Contact Information

Name
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Phone Number
Email Address
Date

Employer Contact Information (if you have it)

Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State, Zip Code

Salutation

Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name, (leave out if you don't have a contact)

Body of Cover Letter

The body of your cover letter lets the employer know what position you are applying for, why the employer should select you for an interview, and how you will follow-up.

First Paragraph

The first paragraph of your letter should include information on why you are writing.

Middle Paragraph(s)

The next section of your cover letter should describe what you have to offer the employer. Mention specifically how your qualifications match the job you are applying for. Remember, you are interpreting your resume, not repeating it.

Final Paragraph

Conclude your cover letter by thanking the employer for considering you for the position. Include information on how you will follow-up.

Complimentary Close

Respectfully yours,

Signature

Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter)
Typed Signature


Purpose of Regular Meetings

The purpose of regular meetings is to maintain the special contact already established between numbers of people, each body of people being in a sense distinct.

This special contact is inhibited by an over-development of the social element. These gatherings should be harmonious, but should not be allowed to become "club like" or gossipy.

The special relationship is harmed by the assumption of status by individual members of the group. Each member should discharge the functions for the time being allotted to him, if any, as a communicator of material, as an organizer, or whatever it might be. The community has to develop a sense of unity of purpose — learning and development — in which each member is to be regarded as important for the success of the whole.

The special relationship is crippled by the exploitation of one member by another, so that co-operation between individual members must be kept within reasonable limits. The development of smaller, informal relationships between small numbers of people from within the grouping must not be encouraged, as such "sub-groups" without official sanction start to cause the group to operate in an unbalanced manner. The group will in such cases operate as an ideological, social, intellectual or other entity, of which in any culture there are enough already.
Each group is a sensitive organism.

Members of the group meet:
• As if there is a special current passing through them. They have been chosen for the group in order to be able to function in this manner, and people leaving or joining the group altering its composition must maintain the same capacity of the group to be an instrument.

• In order to observe their own reactions to meetings. They have to realize that great enthusiasm or any degree of dislike of meetings are symptoms of insufficient integration into the sensitivity of the group, and not bases for decision about the group, the materials or its members.

• In order to be exposed, under correct circumstances, to materials which suit that group and from which they can profit. These materials may be written, recorded, handled, experienced in a variety of different ways.

• In order to realize, through practical experience, that there is an almost inevitable tendency for groups to become ossified or mechanical, and to observe that there are possibilities in this specific group for a current to enter and be maintained which is manifested by a relationship between members which is quite unlike customary groupings.

• In order to prepare themselves for selection to carry out more advanced studies.

• In order to maintain their contact with the Teaching, and their ability to profit from it, so that the Teaching may be able to select them for special activities and higher understanding at the proper time.

• In order to shed the emotional and intellectualist approaches which constantly creep into all studies, our own included, when carried out without due regard for time, place, people and also the statement that there is "another way".

• In order to see and sense the special flavour in our kind of relationship and work, for the purpose of recognizing it instantly, just as one can recognize more customary atmospheres.


The Role of Chairperson

Most meetings require a chairperson in order to control and direct the proceedings. They carry the authority to keep order and maintain progress in line with the agenda. The role of the chair is similar to that of an umpire or referee, aware of the rules of conduct and capable of enforcing these when necessary. However, the chair is also an important member of the group and may be required to vote on the major issues and may even have to exercise a casting vote.

The selection of a chairperson for a formal meeting may be subject to certain rules. For example, the company secretary may be required to chair the AGM. Informal meetings may select a chair by a simple vote or via instructions from whoever has called the meeting. Sometimes there is a rotating chair where everyone gets a turn at leading the proceedings. Whilst this idea is democratic and inclusive, it is unlikely that the skills and qualities required of an effective chair will be found in all of those attending the meeting.

Personal Qualities of the Chair

The main concern of the chair should be the aims and objectives of the group and the integrity of the meeting process. There follows a brief description of the personal qualities that a good chair should possess.

Authority
The chair will need to maintain control to ensure that progress is made in line with the schedule – as defined in the agenda.

Flexibility
Following an agenda does not always imply unquestioning devotion to it. For example, if an unplanned deviation could produce a clarification or the bonding together of meeting participants, then this might represent a very effective strategy.

Impartiality
It is important that the chair supports an equal and fair consideration of all sides of the argument. This can be especially difficult where the chair is privately on one side of the debate.

Maturity
The chair must be able to accept and work with a broad cross section of personalities. They should view each meeting without too much preconception as to how individuals will act and react, but be able to respond as the need arises.

If you aspire to chair meetings but feel that you are weak in one or more of these areas try to improve that skill by observing a chairperson in whom you recognize these qualities. This could be either at meetings you attend or by watching televised debates

Manage the Meeting Process

As the chair, your primary concern should be with the process of the meeting and not the substantive issues it has been called to address. Foremost among these are any protocols that should be followed and the even-handedness with which you direct the proceedings. Your ongoing effectiveness as chair will nearly always be more important than your ability to shape the outcome of any single issue. If you get embroiled in the substantive debate concerning one or more issues, you risk losing credibility and once lost this can prove impossible to regain.

If you wish to have a motion tabled at a meeting that you are chairing, try enlisting another participant to actually make that point. Offering tacit support to someone else's case is a more effective tactic than making it yourself. If you wish to influence the outcome of a particular debate, an effective tactic might be to seek approval for processes that are likely to favor your preferred outcome. If successful, you will be able to exert influence without expressing an opinion. In extreme circumstances, you may decide that it is necessary to sacrifice impartiality for what you see as the importance of helping the group decide on a certain course of action.

Chairing a Meeting of Subordinates

Staying in control of a meeting, which is made up of subordinates should be straightforward. You will be acknowledged as having the authority necessary to set the limits on areas of discussion and will be able to take control whenever you need to. The main challenge is not how to gain, or keep, control but how to liberate your meeting partners, so that everyone can engage in a frank and worthwhile exchange. It is often more productive not to demonstrate too much enthusiasm for any one idea that has been tabled. This approach will encourage greater participation and the generation of more ideas. If you back one particular idea during a meeting, then it is likely that subordinates will fall in line, effectively stifling further debate.

Chairing a Meeting of Peers

When meeting with your peers, your right to control the meeting is not as clear as it is with subordinates. A meeting represents a natural arena for competition among peers, and you are likely to encounter this at various times.

You will not have the luxury of imposing your authority or the ability to admonish other participants. Keeping control of a meeting with your peers will rely more on your ability to manage relationships and deal with any challenges or conflicts in a way that is positive and maintains good humor. A variety of strategies can assist in gaining, and keeping, control of a meeting with peers, as discussed below:

Seek Endorsement

If your boss asks you to convene and lead a meeting, then that will add weight to your role and should make your task easier. However, if your boss makes this clear in a memo or e-mail to each of the participants, then your position will be formally endorsed and your task will have been made that much easier.

Devising the Agenda

The agenda is a precise statement of what the meeting has been called to accomplish, and this more than anything else is the definitive tool for controlling a meeting of peers. When meeting with peers, there should be a consultation process, which is used to shape the agenda. This process enables them to have a say in what is discussed and when. This consultation may also alert you to any hidden agendas among your meeting partners.

Start Formally

Gaining control among peers is a lot more difficult than losing it. It is also more difficult to move from informality to formality than vice-versa. Therefore, whilst you should always be friendly and courteous, it is often good practice to start on a formal or semi-formal basis when meeting with peers. You may then choose to relax when you feel happy that you have gained control over the proceedings. Success breeds success, it also breeds authority. If you develop a track record of leading successful meetings, then your peers are more likely to defer to your judgment. Everyone wants to be associated with a winner, but always remember that your peers must be treated with respect, or resentment and a subsequent loss of authority are likely to follow.

Handling Disruption

Meetings are sometimes disrupted by one or more individual’s intent on making their point. Even if this involves shouting down all other participant’s, including the chairperson. When a meeting is disrupted it is the responsibility of the chair to deal with the problem quickly and restore order. The nature of the meeting will determine the most appropriate method of doing this. In a small scale meeting disciplinary procedures could be alluded to, or even invoked. Troublemakers could be asked to leave or the meeting could be adjourned, in order to discuss the point of contention in a different setting.

Large-scale meetings can present more of a problem, particularly if the disruption has been pre-planned and is being orchestrated on the day. It is important that you take firm control of the situation from the outset and establish your authority. The chair should also be aware of any legal procedures that can be invoked to control or direct the business of any meeting. The alternative courses of action open to the chair in the face of disruption from the floor are:

1. Asking the troublemaker, or ringleader to desist.
2. Requesting the same thing, but in official language, quoting any relevant procedural or legal clauses.
3. If the disruption continues the chair should request that the troublemaker leaves the meeting immediately.
4. The final course of action is to have the troublemaker forcibly removed, preferably by the official security at the venue.

What's Your Role as Organization Secretary?

Your duties and responsibilities maybe:
1. Serving as an Executive Officer of the organization and setting a high example of leadership for the organization.
2. Maintaining and transmitting all correspondence of the organization to your organization's Headquarters, the campus, the community, and other organizations.
3. Custody and responsibility for the organization's Minutes, Roster, Agendas, and other files of the organization.
4. Maintaining an accurate written record of all Organization meetings, and keeping a comprehensive attendance roster for the members.
5. Seeing that all forms and information are sent to your Headquarters on time,complete, and accurate.
6. Receive and distribute all incoming mail to the proper individual in a timely fashion.
7. Create, maintain, and update as necessary, an organization member phone/e-mail list and roster.
8. Prepare an outline agenda for organization and executive board meetings detailing all agenda items.
9. Record minutes from organization and executive board meetings.
10. Responsible for all mailings of the organizations.
11. Produce a master organization calendar for planning and coordinating events. Collect dates from every organization officer at the beginning of each academic year, for inclusion in the master calendar. Distribute copies of this master calendar to every member.

Recording Meeting Outcomes (A Job Aid for Preparing Minutes) Overview:
Meeting minutes should give a clear account of:
• decisions,
• action items and responsible persons, and
• future agenda items that result from the meeting.

Key Issues:
Minutes should be objective. Minutes should not record personal observations or opinions, voting numbers for or against an issue, or excessive detail.
The purpose of minutes is to record the actions of the team or committee and to support follow up and completion of each decision made in the meeting.
The format of minutes can be patterned after the meeting agenda. Members may submit a summary of their projects or other information to aid the recorder’s efforts to produce complete and accurate minutes.

Minutes may include:
• Name of team/committee/department
• Type of meeting
• Purpose/objectives for meeting
• Location, date, and time
• Roles (if applicable): leader/chair, recorder, timekeeper, facilitator
• Members present/absent
• Approval of previous minutes
• Decisions made
• Assignments: task/action item, who is responsible for completion, and due dates
• Tabled or future agenda items
• Date, time, and place of next meeting
• Assigned roles for next meeting
• Evaluation of current meeting (What went well? What can be improved? Rating 1 to 10)
• Adjourn

During the meeting, ask for clarification or wording if you are uncertain about a decision or assignment.
Review the minutes at the end of the meeting to verify that all issues discussed are included, taking care to identify all decisions and assignments.
Handouts may be attached to minutes, or the minutes should identify how to access these documents.
Make minutes available as soon after the meeting as possible to remind members to complete assigned tasks. Members can respond with additions or corrections to the minutes to speed the minute approval process in the next meeting.

Preparing an agenda

An agenda for a meeting is a list of individual items what ensures that the meeting achieves its broad aims.

Common agenda items

• Apologies for absence
• Minutes of the last meeting
• Actions since last meeting or Matters Arising
• Specific Items e.g. Finance/Accounts/Budgets, Appointments, Special Reports
• Date of Next Meeting
• Any Other Business (AOB)


Interviews – The before, during and after.

BEFORE
There are things that you should you bring with you to the interview and things that you need to leave at home:

What to Bring to an Interview
• Portfolio or pad holder with a copy of your resume and a list of references on quality paper
• Work Samples (if relevant)
• Notepad, Pen
• Breath mint (before you enter the building)
• Women: extra pair of pantyhose (keep in your briefcase or car)

What Not to Bring to an Interview
• Cell phone
• iPod
• Gum
• Cigarettes
• Candy
• Soda or coffee
• Scuffed shoes, messy and/or not-so-clean clothes
While You Wait

The way you sit in the lobby, the way you greet the receptionist and the interviewer, and the way you wait, will all have an impact on whether you are going to be considered for the job. Be friendly and pleasant, but, not overbearing. If you need to wait, sit quietly (no phone calls) and patiently. Shake hands with the interviewer. Your handshake should be firm - not sticky or wimpy. To avoid sweaty palms, visit the rest room, wash your hands, then run them under cool water prior to the interview. Keep your palms open rather than clenched in a fist and keep a tissue you in your pocket to (surreptitiously) wipe them.

How to Dress for an Interview

An article in U.S.A. Today spoke about candidates for jobs wearing jeans, purple sweat suits, and spike heels or sneakers. Other applicants weren't afraid to show pierced body parts and spiked hair. Still others chewed gum or showed up in rumpled clothes or with their pants falling down. One recruiter even told a candidate with his trousers down below his hips, to "Pull your pants up." According to the article, the outlandish dress costs some candidates the job.

Dress Your Best When Interviewing

Does it really make a difference how you dress and act? In many cases, it does. I'll never forget the gentleman I interviewed for an accounting position. He had been out of work for a few months and wanted to show me why. He took off his jacket, unbuttoned his shirt and started to pull down his pants (this is a true story) to show me the scar from a boat propeller that had injured him.
Women's Interview Attire
• Solid color, conservative suit
• Coordinated blouse
• Moderate shoes
• Limited jewelry
• Neat, professional hairstyle
• Tan or light hosiery
• Sparse make-up & perfume
• Manicured nails
• Portfolio or briefcase
Men's Interview Attire
• Solid color, conservative suit
• White long sleeve shirt
• Conservative tie
• Dark socks, professional shoes
• Very limited jewelry
• Neat, professional hairstyle
• Go easy on the aftershave
• Neatly trimmed nails
• Portfolio or briefcase

Learn and Practice

Knowing as much as possible about the company can make your interview more interactive and could be just what you need to get ahead in a competitive job market. Next, practice answering typical interview questions so you'll be prepared and comfortable during the actual interview. Plan on what you are going to wear ahead of time. Also, make sure you know where you're going and give yourself plenty of time so you can arrive ahead of schedule.


Employer Research

Gathering background information on employers is crucial element for successful interview preparation. Review prospective employers’ web sites, especially the About This Company section and don't be afraid to request details on the position you are interviewing.

Prepare For the Interview

It is very important to be on time for the interview. On time means ten to fifteen minutes early. If need be, take some time to drive to the office ahead of time so you know exactly where you are going. Know the interviewer's name and use it during the interview. If your not sure of the name, call and ask prior to the interview. Remember to bring an extra copy of your resume and a list of references.

DURING.
How to Use Nonverbal Communication to Impress

When interviewing for employment you could be thinking that if you are the candidate with the best answers to interview questions, you'll get the job. In fact, that isn't typically the case.
CollegeJournal reports that, according to some studies, "Body language comprises 55% of the force of any response, whereas the verbal content only provides 7%, and paralanguage, or the intonation -- pauses and sighs given when answering -- represents 38% of the emphasis."

As you can see, nonverbal communication is as important, or even more important than, verbal communication. The evaluation of your nonverbal communication will start as soon as you walk into the company's lobby and continue until the interview is finished.

Nonverbal Communication Matters

If you come to an interview reeking of cigarette smoke or chewing gum, you will already have one strike against you. Too much perfume or not enough deodorant won't help either. Not being dressed appropriately or having scuffed shoes will give you a second strike. Talking on your cell phone or listening to an IPod while waiting to be called for the interview may be your final strike.
What's important, when interviewing, is to appear professional and attentive throughout the interview process. Before you leave for the interview, make sure you are dressed professionally, neatly groomed, your shoes are polished, and you haven't overdone (none is better than too much) the perfume or aftershave. There's more than one hiring manager who won't hire someone they can smell (good or bad) before they meet them face-to-face.

Your verbal communication is important too. Remember your manners and and thank the interviewer for taking the time to meet with you. Don't use slang. Speak clearly and definitely.
What's most important, is to remember that the image the interviewer has of you when he first meets you is the one that is going to last. If you're slouchy, sloppy or messy it won't matter how well you answer the interview questions. You are not going to get the job. When practicing for an interview, work on your nonverbal communications as well as your other interviewing skills. It could be what clinches the job offer for you.

Bad Body Language Can Spoil an Interview

By EUGENE RAUDSEPP
Before a job interview, do you peruse magazines or review prepared notes? When the meeting begins, do you wait to be told where to sit or choose your own chair? And do you give passionately expressive or carefully controlled responses?
In each of these instances, your body language speaks volumes about how you'd perform at a company. In fact, some experts say nonverbal cues are more important than verbal ones. According to these studies, body language comprises 55% of the force of any response, whereas the verbal content only provides 7%, and paralanguage, or the intonation -- pauses and sighs given when answering -- represents 38% of the emphasis.

Jo-Ann Vega, president of JV Career and Human Resources Consulting Services in Nyack, N.Y., says body language is so important that it frequently torpedoes what we say.
"Our nonverbal messages often contradict what we say in words," says Ms. Vega. "When we send mixed messages or our verbal messages don't jibe with our body statements, our credibility can crumble because most smart interviewers believe the nonverbal."
Laid-off managers are a case in point. They're often so traumatized by their terminations that they appear downcast, even when discussing their strengths, says Ms. Vega. Difficult questions can throw them off balance, and their anxiety may cause them to fidget or become overly rigid, she says.
Since nonverbal communication is more eloquent, honest and accurate than verbal communication, such actions reveal your inner confidence. While words can deceive -- many people don't mean what they say or say what they mean -- body language is subconscious. Since it's more spontaneous and less controlled, it shows our true feelings and attitudes.
Still, most people discount the importance of nonverbal communication because their education and training placed more emphasis on spoken words. To become more adept at interpreting and using body language, heighten your awareness of nonverbal signals and learn to trust your gut instinct. Then, when interviewing, use the following tips to accentuate body language that stresses professionalism and performance.

The First Moments

Realize that you're being judged as soon as you arrive at the company. Set the right tone by being early, then use the extra time to compose yourself. When waiting for interviewers, don't open your briefcase to review notes you've prepared. Instead, glance through available magazines or literature in the waiting area.

This creates the impression that you're relaxed before stressful events, and helps you project confidence during the critical early moments of the interview.
If a receptionist or secretary indicates that the interviewer is ready to see you, enter his office as though you belonged. Knocking on the door, or opening it and peeking in, shows hesitation, which may be interpreted as a lack of confidence.

Greet your interviewer with a firm, sincere handshake. More than a few candidates have betrayed their nervousness by extending limp, clammy palms, and shaking hands weakly.
Don't start talking immediately, fumble with your briefcase or dive into a chair. If you aren't invited to sit, choose a chair across from or aside the interviewer's desk. Avoid soft lounge chairs or couches, which can prevent you from rising easily. And don't ask if and where you should sit.
If your interviewer receives a phone call during the meeting, select and review material from your briefcase to give him a sense of privacy. Don't show annoyance about the interruption or offer to leave the office. Many interviewers purposely take calls to determine if you'll react adversely to office disruptions.

How Close Can You Get?

Like anyone else, interviewers become uncomfortable if their personal space, or preferred distance from others, is invaded. Extraverted interviewers prefer a "social zone" of between 18 and 48 inches from their bodies, while introverts need more space.
Try to gauge interviewers' preferred distance by their seating arrangements. Move closer only if they seem skeptical about what you're saying. Other attempts to seem friendly by moving closer are likely to be threatening. For instance, some interviewers deliberately interrogate applicants by sitting or standing closer than they prefer.
When emphasizing key points, project sincerity and confidence by leaning forward, maintaining eye contact and using expressive gestures. Leaning back and looking down may be interpreted as a lack of confidence.

How Do You Speak?

How you say something often is more meaningful than what you say. Use a natural tone and don't deviate from your normal speaking rate, volume, rhythm, pitch, breathiness or resonance. Secure applicants have relaxed, warm and well-modulated voices that match their feelings, allowing them to appropriately express excitement, enthusiasm and interest during conversations.
Conversely, insecure candidates can't control their voice pitch and volume. They have weak, soft, hesitant or tremulous voices, and clear their throats, use "uhs" and "ums" or other nervous mannerisms excessively. Others mask their insecurity by speaking in complex, involved sentences.

Maintain Eye Contact

Candidates with secure self-esteem alter their facial expressions to match their message, rather than perpetually wearing the same one. They smile when saying something friendly, and maintain good eye contact, which signifies openness and honesty.
Less-assured candidates don't maintain eye contact, act shy or ashamed or smile at inappropriate times. They may appear downcast or pleading, or drop their eyes and heads, giving them an untrustworthy appearance.
Be cognizant of interviewers' expressions as well. If they don't maintain eye contact, it may mean they're anxious, irritated, disinterested or that they want the conversation to end. An interviewer who looks up may be uncomfortable, trying to remember something or doesn't believe your answer.
Don't overdo eye contact with interviewers, however. A gaze that lasts longer than seven to 10 seconds can cause discomfort or anxiety. Also, don't stare at interviewers during long silences, since it only increases the tension.

Posture and Gestures

Even if you're motionless, your posture communicates a message. Managers who put their feet up on desks and their hands behind their heads are saying that they feel confident, dominant or superior; a soldier standing at attention is showing deference to authority; and a subordinate who stands rigidly with hands on hips signals defiance or dislike.
Confident applicants have relaxed, balanced postures. They hold their bodies upright, walk freely with their arms swinging and take determined strides. Less-assured candidates, on the other hand, have rigid or stooped postures, drag or shuffle their feet when walking and take short, choppy strides.
Strive for posture that's as free and natural as your speaking style, but don't be too controlled or rehearsed, says Ms. Vega, who advises applicants to "let some of the passion out." When your movements are in sync with your words, you'll seem confident, expressive and controlled.

Reading Interviewers

Hiring managers also use gestures to convey specific messages. Nodding signifies approval and encourages applicants to continue talking, while leaning forward shows they're interested. Folded arms, crossed legs, picking imaginary lint from clothing or running their fingers along their noses are signs that an interviewer disagrees with you. Thumb twiddling, finger drumming and other fidgeting mannerisms mean the interviewer isn't paying attention.
Guard against using similar gestures or betraying your nervousness by clenching or wringing your hands. Other actions that convey stress include holding your legs or arms tensely, perching on the edge of a chair or playing with a watch or ring.
One caveat: Don't imagine a hidden meaning in every gesture. For example, if an interviewer rubs her nose while you're speaking, she may just have an itchy nose. Try to gauge the situation when seeking the meaning to a mannerism. Most experts look for clues in groups of gestures, not random ones.
Nevertheless, communicating the right nonverbal signals can help you convey an enthusiastic, positive and confident attitude during job interviews. And learning to read interviewers' cues can improve your prospects as well.
http://jobsearch.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ&sdn=jobsearch&cdn=careers&tm=87&gps=84_223_1020_592&f=10&su=p554.2.150.ip_p560.3.150.ip_p664.2.420.ip_&tt=2&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.collegejournal.com/jobhunting/interviewing/20001114-raudsepp.html
AFTER
Writing Thank You Letters
Writing a thank you letter, or thank you email, after an employment interview is a must. In fact, some employers think less of those interviewees who fail to follow-up promptly. Plan to send out your thank you letters as soon as possible (preferably within twenty-four hours) after your interview.
Customize Your Thank You Letters
Like any piece of writing, it is best to keep your audience in mind. Address their issues and concerns. In general, typed (paper or email) thank you letters are recommended. Consider the "personality" of the organization and the rapport you felt during your interviews. If your interview was a fairly informal process and/or you achieved an immediate rapport with your interviewer, a handwritten note may be fine. When you're not sure what to write, review thank you letter samples to get ideas.
In addition to thanking the person you talked with, the thank you letter reinforces the fact that you want the job. Note: Even if you do not want the job, write a thank you letter respectfully withdrawing your application, because you never know what the future holds so why burn your bridges?
View Your Thank You Letters as Sales Letters
You may also view your thank you letters as follow-up "sales" letters. In other words, you can restate why you want the job, what your qualifications are, how you might make significant contributions, and so on. This thank you letter is also the perfect opportunity to discuss anything of importance that your interviewer neglected to ask or that you neglected to answer as thoroughly, or as well, as you would have liked.
Group Thank You Letters
What if you spent an entire day being interviewed (and taken to lunch) with several people? Are individual thank you notes appropriate or should you write a "group" letter? Choose your approach based on what you think will be most in keeping with the "personality" of the organization. Also, consider whether the interviews had very much in common with one another. If there was a great deal of similarity (i.e., shared concerns mutually voiced by your interviewers), perhaps a "group" letter will suffice. My preference though, would be to take the extra time and send an individual thank you letter to everyone you met with.
When You're Not Sure What to Write
Time takes precedence - get a simple, appreciative thank you note in the mail or send a thank you by email without delay; save your creative efforts for another time. If you're not sure what to write, review a few sample thank you letters or personalize our thank you letter template.
Remember to Proofread
Check spelling, grammar, typos, etc. If in doubt about the correct names, spellings or titles of your interviewers, call the office to double-check. Your efforts will be worth it!

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